Enabling Information Technology - Empowering Moore's Law and Living Better Through Chemistry and Plastics: Difference between pages

Latest revision as of 14:38, 6 January 2015

In the early 1930s, DuPont’s attempts to synthesize commercially viable polyester fibers were stymied by the problems of low melting points and high solubility in water. The research team, led by chemist Walter H. Carothers, turned its attention to polyamides rather than polyesters, and in 1934 pulled a polymer fiber based on an aminoethylester — the first nylon. The team would face two possibilities: polyamide 5,10, made from pentamethylene diamine and sebacic acid; and polyamide 6,6, made from hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid. (DuPont named its molecules for the number of carbons in the starting materials.) DuPont settled on polyamide 6,6, (“Fiber 66”) because the intermediates could be more easily prepared from benzene, a readily available starting material derived from coal tar. Read the Chemical Heritage Foundation's Science of Plastics.

Milestones

1910
Bakelite, the first entirely synthetic thermosetting plastic, is produced from phenol, formaldehyde and wood flour.

Leo Baekeland was searching for a synthetic replacement for shellac when he began experimenting with the reactions of phenol and formaldehyde. By controlling the pressure and temperature applied to an intermediate made from the two reagents, he produced a polymer that, when mixed with fillers, produced a hard moldable plastic. Bakelite, though relatively expensive, soon found many applications — from household products like the telephone to automobile components to the rapidly growing radio industry. (Bakelite)

1928
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) acrylic glass in developed; marketed in 1933 as Plexiglas. (Rohm & Haas)

1937
Polystyrene is produced commercially. It was first made accidentally from a Turkish Sweetgum (Liquidambar orientalis) tree in 1839. (Dow Chemical)

1939
Polyamide Nylon 66 is produced commercially for use in women’s hosiery. (E. I. DuPont)

1941
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), the first polyester, and Terylene (a trademark of ICI, known as Dacron in the U.S.), the first polyester fiber, are developed. (E. I. DuPont)

1942
Foamed polystyrene (Styrofoam) is produced and first used to float U.S. Coast Guard six-man life rafts. (U.S. Coast Guard; Dow Chemical)

1946
Teflon is marketed under its trademark. It was first inadvertently produced in 1938 from compressed/frozen tetrafluoroethylene. (E. I. DuPont)

1952
Mylar polyester film is introduced; used widely in electrical, electronics, imaging, and graphics applications. Commercialized in 1952, Mylar replaced cellophane as the major product of the DuPont Film Dept. (E. I. DuPont)

1953
First-generation alkyl metal catalysts (TiCl3 and AlEt2Cl) are developed for polymerizing alpha olefins (e.g., ethylene and propylene). Important products include linear low-density polyethylene and crystalline polypropylene. (Ziegler-Natta)

1955–1959
High-density polyethylene (1955–1956), polypropylene (1957–1958) and stereo-specific rubber (1958–1959) are commercialized. (Hoechst; Grace; Hercules; Phillips)

1959
First commercial production of thermoplastic polycarbonates — products characterized by outstanding low-temperature ductility, impact resistance and superior optical clarity (Lexan trademark). (General Electric)

1977
Fluid-bed catalytic process is commercialized to produce polyethylene copolymerized with three to six carbon alpha olefins (propylene, n-butane, etc.). This development allowed precise control of polymer properties (UNIPOL trademark). (Union Carbide)

1982
Structural composites (e.g., 1984 Corvette bumper) are manufactured using reaction injection molding, the rapid mixing/reaction of isocyanates and polyols. (NSF; Bayer; Dow; Texaco)

1993
Metallocene catalyst is developed to produce ethylene copolymers of exceptional strength, toughness and film clarity. Metallocenes are made of metal atoms held between two carbon rings. (Dow Chemical)

2003
Fermented corn sugar is converted to short-chain polylactic acids for use in plastics and fiber manufacture. (Cargill; Dow LLC)

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-Based on the insight of Intel co-founder [http://www.chemheritage.org/discover/online-resources/chemistry-in-history/themes/microelectronics-and-nanotechnology/moore.aspx Gordon E. Moore], Moore’s Law describes the exponentially advancing technology of the past half-century, specifically illustrated by the number of transistors that can be placed on an integrated circuit board — a quantity that doubles approximately every two years. Personal computing, in its various forms, has become the ubiquitous representation of digital technology’s penetration into every facet of our existence.<br>
+In the early 1930s, DuPont’s attempts to synthesize commercially viable '''polyester''' fibers were stymied by the problems of low melting points and high solubility in water. The research team, led by chemist Walter H. Carothers, turned its attention to '''polyamides''' rather than polyesters, and in 1934 pulled a '''polymer fiber '''based on an aminoethylester — the first '''nylon'''. The team would face two possibilities: polyamide 5,10, made from pentamethylene diamine and sebacic acid; and polyamide 6,6, made from hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid. (DuPont named its molecules for the number of carbons in the starting materials.) DuPont settled on polyamide 6,6, (“Fiber 66”) because the intermediates could be more easily prepared from benzene, a readily available starting material derived from coal tar. ''Read the Chemical Heritage Foundation's [http://www.chemheritage.org/discover/online-resources/conflicts-in-chemistry/the-case-of-plastics/all-science-of-plastics.aspx Science of Plastics].
+''
+== Milestones  ==
-Some believe that Moore’s Law is finally approaching its limit, but the law is evident in the capacity of our digital electronic devices, from laptop processing speed to the number of pixels in digital cameras.
+'''1910 '''<br>'''[http://www.chemheritage.org/discover/online-resources/conflicts-in-chemistry/the-case-of-plastics/blog/material-of-a-thousand-uses.aspx Bakelite]''', the first entirely synthetic thermosetting plastic, is produced from phenol, formaldehyde and wood flour. <br>
-----
+'''[http://www.chemheritage.org/discover/online-resources/chemistry-in-history/themes/petrochemistry-and-synthetic-polymers/synthetic-polymers/baekeland.aspx Leo Baekeland]''' was searching for a synthetic replacement for shellac when he began experimenting with the reactions of phenol and formaldehyde. By controlling the pressure and temperature applied to an intermediate made from the two reagents, he produced a polymer that, when mixed with fillers, produced a hard moldable plastic. Bakelite, though relatively expensive, soon found many applications — from household products like the telephone to automobile components to the rapidly growing radio industry. (Bakelite)<br>
-'''1950s '''— Ferrous-oxide-coated magnetic tape (0.5 in. wide by 1,200/2,400 ft. long) becomes the ''de facto'' standard for computers. In the 1980s, thinner Mylar film would allow for 3,600-ft. long tapes.
+'''1928 '''<br>Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) acrylic glass in developed; marketed in 1933 as '''Plexiglas'''. (Rohm &amp; Haas)
-IBM’s tape drive vacuum column paved the way for magnetic tape to become a popular storage medium. Prior to the vacuum column, fragile magnetic tape was plagued by breakages as it was subjected to sudden starts and stops. IBM devised a solution where the tape was held down by a vacuum during these rapid accelerations and decelerations. Its use in the IBM 701 signaled the beginning of the era of magnetic storage, for its buffering technique would become widely adopted throughout the industry. (IBM)
+'''1937 '''<br>'''Polystyrene '''is produced commercially. It was first made accidentally from a Turkish Sweetgum (Liquidambar orientalis) tree in 1839. (Dow Chemical)
-'''1967 '''— The first multi-level computer control system capable of selecting its operating parameters achieves a refinery’s targeted fluid catalytic cracking performance. (IBM; Esso Research and Engineering)
+'''1939 '''<br>Polyamide Nylon 66 is produced commercially for use in women’s hosiery. (E. I. DuPont)
-'''1968 '''— Solid photoresists and dry polymeric light-resistant films are produced, allowing for precise and convenient reproduction of intricate circuitry. (E. I. DuPont)
+'''1941 '''<br>'''Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)''', the first '''polyester''', and Terylene (a trademark of ICI, known as '''Dacron''' in the U.S.), the first polyester fiber, are developed. (E. I. DuPont)
-'''1970s '''— Silicon microchips are mass-produced; devices are nanofabricated using single ultra-pure-silicon crystals cut from 8-in.- diameter by 5-ft.-long wafers (2000s). (AT&amp;T; Texas Instruments)
+'''1942 '''<br>'''Foamed polystyrene ([http://www.chemheritage.org/discover/online-resources/conflicts-in-chemistry/the-case-of-plastics/blog/tiny-bubbles.aspx Styrofoam]) '''is produced and first used to float U.S. Coast Guard six-man life rafts. (U.S. Coast Guard; Dow Chemical)
-'''1972 '''— Urban gaseous and particulate pollutants are successfully modeled. The models would evolve to include photochemical ozone from automobile exhausts. (California Institute of Technology)
+'''1946 '''<br>'''[http://www.chemheritage.org/discover/media/distillations/160-teflon.aspx Teflon] '''is marketed under its trademark. It was first inadvertently produced in 1938 from compressed/frozen tetrafluoroethylene. (E. I. DuPont)
-'''1973 '''— Robust glass optical fibers are developed. By 1986, erbium-doped optical fiber amplifier would significantly reduce the need for optical-electrical-optical repeaters. (Bell Laboratories)
+'''1952 '''<br>'''Mylar '''polyester film is introduced; used widely in electrical, electronics, imaging, and graphics applications. Commercialized in 1952, Mylar replaced cellophane as the major product of the DuPont Film Dept. (E. I. DuPont)
-'''1976 '''— Thin-film liquid crystal displays with picture elements driven by their own individual transistors enter the television and other mass markets. (RCA Corporation)
+'''1953'''<br>First-generation alkyl metal catalysts (TiCl3 and AlEt2Cl) are developed for polymerizing alpha olefins (''e.g.'', ethylene and propylene). Important products include linear low-density polyethylene and crystalline polypropylene. (Ziegler-Natta)
-'''1977 '''— Increased disk storage mandates the use of lithographic techniques to make magnetic heads for reading and recording data. (U.S. Philips Corp.)
+'''1955–1959 '''<br>High-density polyethylene (1955–1956), polypropylene (1957–1958) and stereo-specific rubber (1958–1959) are commercialized. (Hoechst; Grace; Hercules; Phillips)
-'''1981 '''— Advanced System for Process Engineering (ASPEN) is commercialized. ASPEN-developed software models and analyzes integrated processes from detailed design elements to their costs. (MIT Energy Lab / U.S. Dept. of Energy [DOE] funding [1976–1981])
+'''1959 '''<br>First commercial production of thermoplastic polycarbonates — products characterized by outstanding low-temperature ductility, impact resistance and superior optical clarity ('''Lexan''' trademark). (General Electric)<br>
-'''1981''' — First commercial PC-based process simulation software is developed (HYSIM). (Hyprotech)
+'''1977 '''<br>Fluid-bed catalytic process is commercialized to produce polyethylene copolymerized with three to six carbon alpha olefins (propylene, n-butane, etc.). This development allowed precise control of polymer properties (UNIPOL trademark). (Union Carbide) <br>
-'''1989 '''— Silicon germanium (SiGe) chip, with germanium included in the base layer of silicon chips, are commercialized, allowing for faster performance at lower cost. (IBM)
+'''1982 '''<br>Structural composites (''e.g.'', 1984 Corvette bumper) are manufactured using reaction injection molding, the rapid mixing/reaction of isocyanates and polyols. (NSF; Bayer; Dow; Texaco)
-'''1992 '''— Aluminum oxide and molybdenum or tungsten for interconnecting computer chips is supplanted by fewer, smaller and faster cordierite glass-ceramic and copper layers. (IBM)
+'''1993 '''<br>Metallocene catalyst is developed to produce ethylene copolymers of exceptional strength, toughness and film clarity. Metallocenes are made of metal atoms held between two carbon rings. (Dow Chemical)
-'''1998 '''— Fast, relatively inexpensive microfluidic devices are produced using soft lithography (rapid prototyping and replica molding) in poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS). (Harvard Univ.)
+'''2003 '''<br>Fermented corn sugar is converted to short-chain polylactic acids for use in plastics and fiber manufacture. (Cargill; Dow LLC) <br>
-'''2000 '''— Integrated chips having 20 layers of semiconductor, dielectric, and conducting films, with individual features of 0.5 µm, are developed. (Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Co.)
+[[Category:Materials]]
-'''2003 '''— Full economic potential for process intensification — integrating multiple operations into a single unit — is achieved with model-predictive-controlled divided-wall columns. (BASF)<br>
-[[Category:Computing_and_electronics]]