Milestones:Shannon Scheme for the Electrification of the Irish Free State, 1929 and Milestones:First Breaking of Enigma Code by the Team of Polish Cipher Bureau, 1932-1939: Difference between pages

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Title

Citation

Polish Cipher Bureau mathematicians Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski broke the German Enigma cipher machine codes. Working with engineers from the AVA Radio Manufacturing Company, they built the ‘bomba’ – the first cryptanalytic machine to break Enigma codes. Their work was a foundation of British code breaking efforts which, with later American assistance, helped end World War II.

Street address(es) and GPS coordinates of the Milestone Plaque Sites

, ul. Śniadeckich 8, 00-956 Warszawa (Warsaw), Poland GPS (latitude, longitude) 52.2213787 ; 21.0146535

Details of the physical location of the plaque

The plaque is at the front entrance of the Institute's building facing the Sniadeckich Street

How the plaque site is protected/secured

The plaque site is publicly accessible at one of the busy streets of Warsaw downtown area, with high concentration of academics and tourists. Click here for an article with photographs of the plaque monument

Historical significance of the work

IEEE Milestone Description During the 1930s, a trio of Polish mathematicians Marian Rejewski (1905 – 1980), Henryk Zygalski (1907 – 1978), and Jerzy Różycki (1909 – 1942) solved the German Enigma cipher machine and broke Enigma messages. Working with engineers from AVA Radio Manufacturing Company they built the bomba – the first cryptanalytic machine designed to attack Enigma and one of many cryptanalytic machines to be built by Allied codebreakers. Enigma is an electrically wired rotor machine; a sequence of ciphers is generated by the motion of rotors in the machine. It is one of several cipher machines that were developed for military or for commercial use during or just after World War I.

German Arthur Scherbius invented Enigma; he patented a rotor machine in 1918. An American, Edward Hebern, had designed a rotor cipher machine in 1917, and the Dutch inventor Hugo Koch and the Swedish inventor Arvid Damm designed machines that were patented in 1919. It is likely that both Scherbius’ and Koch’s designs resulted from a rotor machine developed in 1915 by two Dutch military officers. The weaknesses of their World War I codes and ciphers prompted the German military to adopt a cipher machine. The Reichsmarine began using Enigma in 1926, and the Reichswehr began using it in 1928.

The Polish Cipher Bureau had many successes during the Polish-Soviet War (1919 – 1921), and in the 1920s the Cipher Bureau monitored radio signals resulting from German military exercises. In 1928 the Poles were confronted by messages that – because of the randomness of letters in the messages – were thought to be generated by a machine cipher. That same year the Cipher Bureau began a cryptology course for mathematics students at Poznań University. Rejewski, Zygalski, and Różycki participated in that course. They began working for the Cipher Bureau in Poznań but moved to Warsaw, and Rejewski began his attack on Enigma in September 1932.

Although the Cipher Bureau was aware of the operation of a commercial Enigma, the rotors of the German military Enigma had different wiring than the commercial version, and the German military had complicated the machine by adding a plugboard, which further greatly scrambled the letters. By the end of 1932, Rejewski had determined the wiring of the rotors of the military version of Enigma. In 1932, Rejewski had received from the French two German manuals that described the operation of military Enigma. He had managed to write a system of equations that modeled the permutations of the six indicators (which were used by the sending operator to transmit the message setting to the receiving operator) at the beginning of Enigma messages. In December 1932, Rejewski received from the French the setting sheets for September and October. This information allowed Rejewski to substitute for some of the unknowns in his system of equations and solve for the wiring of the rotors. The Cipher Bureau arranged with AVA Radio Manufacturing Company to produce Enigma “doubles.” Doubles were produced in 1934.

AVA Company had been established by Edward Fokczyński and Antoni Palluth to design and produce telecommunications equipment for the Polish army. They were soon joined by the brothers Ludomir and Leonard Danilewicz, who had graduated from Warsaw University of Technology. In order to break Enigma messages, it was necessary to determine the machine settings. The Polish codebreakers developed several techniques to determine settings. For example, Różycki developed the “clock method,” and Zygalski developed a set of perforated sheets. Two other methods resulted in the production of codebreaking machines – one machine to produce a catalog of settings and their “characteristics” and another to determine the rotor settings.

In 1934, Rejewski was able to exploit patterns, which he called characteristics, produced by the six-letter indicators at the beginning of Enigma messages. Rejewski designed a machine called the cyclometer to catalog the characteristics of all 105,456 rotor settings. Again, the AVA Radio Manufacturing Company produced the machine. It took the codebreakers approximately a year to prepare the catalog. Unfortunately not long after its completion, the Germans changed Enigma’s reflecting rotor, and the catalog had to be redone. This method was rendered useless when the indicator procedure changed in September 1938. However, Rejewski found patterns in the new indicators. Working with the engineers at AVA, one of the most famous codebreaking machines – the bomba – was produced. The six bomby (plural in Polish for “bomba”) searched through all 105,456 rotor settings for those that exhibited patterns that could be determined from the indicators after a sufficient number of messages were intercepted. (Note: The reason that it is written both “bomba” and “bombę” is the declension endings. “Bomba” is for “who” or “what” and “bombę” is for “whom, what for?”) Usually only a small number of settings produced the patterns, and each of those settings was tried to determine the one that was correct. Because there were three rotors and three positions for rotors in Enigma, there were six possible rotor orders; therefore, six bomby were produced. In December 1938, the Germans introduced two new rotors. Then there were sixty possible ways to select three rotors from the set and place them in Enigma; sixty bomby would have been needed, and the Cipher Bureau could not afford to build them. After the change, the Cipher Bureau could break few Enigma messages.

In July 1939, as war with Germany loomed over Poland, the Polish codebreakers met just outside Warsaw with British and French codebreakers. At this meeting the Poles described their achievements against Enigma. As a result of the meeting, the British and the French each received one of the Enigma doubles and information on the methods used by the Poles to solve daily keys. On September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland, and British codebreakers at Bletchley Park continued the attack on Enigma. British mathematicians such as Alan Turing and Gordon Welchman and engineers such as Harold “Doc” Keen and Thomas “Tommy” Flowers developed cryptanalytic machines to attack Enigma and other German ciphers. One of the machines to attack Enigma was the Turing-Welchman bombe. (IEEE Milestone, Bletchley Park, 1939 – 1945) Both the British bombe and the Polish bomba searched through all possible Enigma rotor settings for settings that produced patterns that had been noticed by the codebreakers. The British bombe searched for patterns in Enigma messages, and the Polish bomba searched for patterns in Enigma indicators.

After the United States entered the war, US Navy mathematicians at Naval Communications in Washington, DC, designed cryptanalytic machines to attack Japanese ciphers and machines to assist the British with the attack on naval Enigma. These codebreaking machines were engineered by Joseph Desch and other engineers at the Naval Computing Machine Laboratory located at National Cash Register Company in Dayton, OH. One of the machines to attack naval Enigma was the US Navy cryptologic bombe. (IEEE Milestone, Naval Computing Machine Laboratory, 1942 – 1945) The US Navy bombe – like the British bombe – searched for patterns in Enigma messages. At the beginning of the German attack on Poland, Rejewski, Zygalski, and Różycki fled Warsaw, and they arrived in Paris in late September. By the end of October they were again working on German ciphers – now at Command Post (P.C.) Bruno at Gretz-Armainvillers near Paris. The Poles and the British exchanged Enigma keys. In January 1940, Alan Turing visited the Polish codebreakers in France. Turing brought the Poles the British version of the Zygalski sheets, and the Poles provided Turing with corrected information on the wiring of Enigma rotors IV and V. Palluth and Fokczyński had also fled to France. Palluth maintained the team’s radio contact with London and later with Algiers and was involved with monitoring German radio signals. Fokczynski repaired radio and cipher equipment.

Following the German attack on France in May 1940, Rejewski, Zygalski, and Różycki evacuated to North Africa. By October they had returned to Vichy France and continued attacking German ciphers. They were located near Uzès at P.C. Cadix. Until Germany took control of South France, the Polish codebreakers traveled to and from North Africa. On January 9, 1942, on a trip back to France after a three-month assignment in the cipher section in Algiers, Różycki died when the ship on which he was traveling sank. In November 1942, after Operation Torch, the Allied attack on North Africa, Germany occupied free France. Rejewski and Zygalski undertook a harrowing crossing into Spain, which included their being detained in Spanish prisons. After their release, they traveled to Portugal and then to Gibraltar from where they flew to Britain. Palluth and Fokczyński were both captured during the crossing into Spain. They both died in the Sachsenhausen camp – Palluth during an Allied bombing raid and Fokczyński due to illness. Rejewski and Zygalski arrived in Great Britain in August 1943 and served with the Communications Battalion of the Polish Armed Forces Commander-in-Chief’s General Staff. Both served in the German section. Their work until the end of the war was breaking manual SS and SD ciphers.

After the war, Zygalski remained in England and worked at the Polish University. He died in 1978 in Liss, near Portsmouth. When the war ended, Rejewski returned to his home in Bydgoszcz where, despite harassment by the Polish security services, he worked for various companies until his retirement because of poor health in 1966. He moved to Warsaw in 1969 and died there of a heart attack in 1980.

IEEE Poland Section is indebted to Dr. Chris Christensen and Mr. Ralph Erskine for their editorial support and useful comments added to this manuscript, especially concerning the existing related IEEE Milestones (1939-45 Bletchley Park, and 1942-45 Naval Computing Machine Laboratory)

Features that set this work apart from similar achievements

On September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland, and British codebreakers at Bletchley Park continued the attack on Enigma. British mathematicians such as Alan Turing and Gordon Welchman and engineers such as Harold “Doc” Keen and Thomas “Tommy” Flowers developed cryptanalytic machines to attack Enigma and other German ciphers. One of the machines to attack Enigma was the Turing-Welchman bombe. (IEEE Milestone, Bletchley Park, 1939 – 1945) Both the British bombe and the Polish bomba searched through all possible Enigma rotor settings for settings that produced patterns that had been noticed by the codebreakers. The British bombe searched for patterns in Enigma messages, and the Polish bomba searched for patterns in Enigma indicators.

After the United States entered the war, US Navy mathematicians at Naval Communications in Washington, DC, designed cryptanalytic machines to attack Japanese ciphers and machines to assist the British with the attack on naval Enigma. These codebreaking machines were engineered by Joseph Desch and other engineers at the Naval Computing Machine Laboratory located at National Cash Register Company in Dayton, OH. One of the machines to attack naval Enigma was the US Navy cryptologic bombe. (IEEE Milestone, Naval Computing Machine Laboratory, 1942 – 1945) The US Navy bombe – like the British bombe – searched for patterns in Enigma messages.

Significant references

The achievements outlined above are covered in more detail in the following publications: [1] Frank Carter, “The First Breaking of Enigma: Some of the Pioneering Techniques Developed by the Polish Cipher Bureau,” Report No 2, Bletchley Park Trust, 2008. [2] Jennifer Wilcox, “Solving the Enigma: History of the Cryptanalytic Bombe,” Center for Cryptologic History, National Security Agency, 2006. http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/solving_enigma.pdf [3] Chris Christensen,”Polish Mathematicians Finding Patterns in Enigma Messages,” Mathematics Magazine, 80(4), October 2007, pp. 247-273. [4] F. H. Hinsley, et al., British Intelligence in the Second World War: Its Influence on Strategy and Operations (book). 3(2), Appendix 30. [5] Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing: The Enigma, Simon & Schuster, 1983 (book). This is also available in a Polish translation: Andrew Hodges, Enigma. Życie i śmierć Alana Turinga, Prószyński i S-ka, Warsaw, 2002. [6] Brian Johnson, The Secret War, Methuen Inc, 1978 (book). This is also available in a Polish translation: Brian Johnson, Sekrety Drugiej Wojny Światowej. Wojna Mózgów, Zysk i S-ka, Warsaw, 1997. [7] Władysław Kozaczuk, W kręgu Enigmy, Książka i Wiedza, Warsaw 1986 (book). [8] David Kahn, The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing, Scribner; Revised Edition, 1996 (book). This is also available in a Polish translation: Łamacze kodów: Historia kryptologii, WNT Warszawa, 2004. [9] Marian Rejewski, Memories of My Work at the Cipher Bureau of the General Staff Second Department 1930-45, Adam Mickiewicz University Press, Poznań, Poland, 2011 (book.) Half of this book is written in Polish, and the other half is a translation into English. Websites: US National Security Agency’s Center for Cryptologic History website: http://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/center_crypt_history/publications/wwii.shtml There are many Enigma websites, including Wikipedia’s comprehensive coverage at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptanalysis_of_the_Enigma

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-== Shannon Scheme for the Electrification of the Irish Free State, 1929  ==
+{{MilestoneLayout|citation=Polish Cipher Bureau mathematicians Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski  broke the German Enigma cipher machine codes.  Working with engineers from the AVA Radio Manufacturing Company, they built the ‘bomba’ – the first cryptanalytic machine to break Enigma codes. Their work was a foundation of British code breaking efforts which, with later American assistance, helped end World War II.|gps=ul. Śniadeckich 8,  00-956 Warszawa (Warsaw), Poland
+GPS (latitude, longitude) 52.2213787&nbsp;; 21.0146535|plaque=The plaque is at the front entrance of the Institute's building facing the Sniadeckich Street|secured=The plaque site is publicly accessible at one of the busy streets of Warsaw downtown area, with high concentration of academics and tourists. [http://www.chron.com/news/world/article/World-engineers-honor-Polish-Enigma-code-breakers-5669347.php#photo-6685492 Click here for an article with photographs of the plaque monument]|significance=IEEE Milestone Description
+During the 1930s, a trio of Polish mathematicians Marian Rejewski (1905 – 1980), Henryk Zygalski (1907 – 1978),
+and Jerzy Różycki (1909 – 1942) solved the German Enigma cipher machine and broke Enigma messages.
+Working with engineers from AVA Radio Manufacturing Company they built the bomba – the first cryptanalytic
+machine designed to attack Enigma and one of many cryptanalytic machines to be built by Allied codebreakers.
+Enigma is an electrically wired rotor machine; a sequence of ciphers is generated by the motion of rotors in the
+machine.  It is one of several cipher machines that were developed for military or for commercial use during or
+just after World War I.
-[[Image:Shannon Scheme electrification.jpg|thumb]]''The Shannon Scheme was officially opened on 22 July 1929. One of the largest engineering projects of its day, it was successfully executed by Siemens to harness the Shannon River. It subsequently served as a model for large-scale electrification projects worldwide. Operated by the Electricity Supply Board, it had an immediate impact on the social, economic and industrial development of Ireland and continued to supply significant power beyond the end of the 20th century.''
+German Arthur Scherbius invented Enigma; he patented a rotor machine in 1918.
+An American, Edward Hebern, had designed a rotor cipher machine in 1917, and the Dutch inventor
+Hugo Koch and the Swedish inventor Arvid Damm designed machines that were patented in 1919.
+It is likely that both Scherbius’ and Koch’s designs resulted from a rotor machine developed in 1915
+by two Dutch military officers.
+The weaknesses of their World War I codes and ciphers prompted the German military to adopt a cipher machine.
+The Reichsmarine began using Enigma in 1926, and the Reichswehr began using it in 1928.
-Ardnacrusha, Ireland. Dedicated: 29 July 2002, IEEE UKRI Section. Joint designation as an [http://content.asce.org/history/ce_landmarks.html ASCE Landmark ]<br>
-'''The plaque can be viewed at the Ardnacrusha Power Station, in Limerick, Ireland.'''
+The Polish Cipher Bureau had many successes during the Polish-Soviet War (1919 – 1921), and in the 1920s the
+Cipher Bureau monitored radio signals resulting from German military exercises.  In 1928 the Poles were
+confronted by messages that – because of the randomness of letters in the messages – were thought to
+be generated by a machine cipher.
+That same year the Cipher Bureau began a cryptology course for mathematics students at Poznań University.
+Rejewski, Zygalski, and Różycki participated in that course.  They began working for the Cipher Bureau
+in Poznań but moved to Warsaw, and Rejewski began his attack on Enigma in September 1932.
-By international standards in 1925, the Shannon Scheme for the Electrification of the Irish Free State was one of the largest civil and electrical engineering projects of its type at the time it was built. It was hugely important as it represented the largest foreign order received by a German company. For Siemens, the execution of the Shannon Scheme was the one single event that marked the reappearance of the firm on the world electrical scene following the gloom of the Great War and its painful aftermath. It remains as one of the major landmarks in the history of the company world-wide.<ref name="refnum1">150 Years of Siemens, Wilfried Felderkirchen, Siemens Forum, Piper Verlag GmbH, Munich 1997</ref>
-== Major Electrical Engineering World Reference Site  ==
+Although the Cipher Bureau was aware of the operation of a commercial Enigma, the rotors of the German
+military Enigma had different wiring than the commercial version, and the German military had complicated
+the machine by adding a plugboard, which further greatly scrambled the letters.  By the end of 1932,
+Rejewski had determined the wiring of the rotors of the military version of Enigma.  In 1932, Rejewski
+had received from the French two German manuals that described the operation of military Enigma.
+He had managed to write a system of equations that modeled the permutations of the six indicators
+(which were used by the sending operator to transmit the message setting to the receiving operator)
+at the beginning of Enigma messages.  In December 1932, Rejewski received from the French the setting
+sheets for September and October.  This information allowed Rejewski to substitute for some of the
+unknowns in his system of equations and solve for the wiring of the rotors.
+The Cipher Bureau arranged with AVA Radio Manufacturing Company to produce Enigma “doubles.”
+Doubles were produced in 1934.
-<p>The success of the work on the Shannon Scheme earned for the participating German firms a world-wide eminence. The Shannon Scheme, with its head of some 30 meters - which was not up to that time rarely to be found throughout the world, thus served as an important reference plant for Siemens and this successfully executed large project greatly impressed potential clients. So while Siemens lost money on the contract, it was nonetheless viewed as a "loss leader" and was highly influential for future work including the Rio Negro Plant in Uruguay and the Dnieprostroi Power Plant in Russia. </p>
+AVA Company had been established by Edward Fokczyński and
+Antoni Palluth to design and produce telecommunications equipment for the Polish army.
+They were soon joined by the brothers Ludomir and Leonard Danilewicz, who had graduated from
+Warsaw University of Technology.
+In order to break Enigma messages, it was necessary to determine the machine settings.  The Polish codebreakers
+developed several techniques to determine settings.  For example, Różycki developed the “clock method,”
+and Zygalski developed a set of perforated sheets.  Two other methods resulted in the production of
+codebreaking machines – one machine to produce a catalog of settings and their “characteristics” and
+another to determine the rotor settings.
-<p>In his thesis, Schoen<ref name="refnum2">Translated from Studien zur Entwicklung hydroelectrischer Enegienutzung: Die Electrifizierung Irlands, Lothar Schoen: Verein Deutcher Ingenieure 1979</ref> noted the world-wide observation of the Shannon Scheme: </p>
-<p>The evolution and execution of the Shannon Scheme, the establishment of the ESB and the other steps taken in the Free State to encourage the nationalised supply of electricity, had from the start attracted world-wide attention, especially from Germany, Great Britain and the USA. It therefore does not come as a surprise that on 21st October 1929, a few days before the commencement of commercial power supply from the Shannon power station, Franklin D. Roosevelt sent a letter to Dublin, to the first Public Relations Officer of the ESB, E. A. Lawler, requesting details of the Shannon Scheme and the formation of the ESB. </p>
+In 1934, Rejewski was able to exploit patterns, which he called characteristics, produced by the six-letter
+indicators at the beginning of Enigma messages.  Rejewski designed a machine called the cyclometer to
+catalog the characteristics of all 105,456 rotor settings.  Again, the AVA Radio Manufacturing Company
+produced the machine.  It took the codebreakers approximately a year to prepare the catalog.
+Unfortunately not long after its completion, the Germans changed Enigma’s reflecting rotor, and
+the catalog had to be redone. This method was rendered useless when the indicator procedure
+changed in September 1938.
+However, Rejewski found patterns in the new indicators.  Working with the engineers at AVA, one of
+the most famous codebreaking machines – the bomba – was produced.  The six bomby (plural in
+Polish for “bomba”) searched through all 105,456 rotor settings for those that exhibited patterns
+that could be determined from the indicators after a sufficient number of messages were intercepted.  (Note: The reason that it is written both “bomba” and “bombę” is the declension endings. “Bomba” is for “who” or “what” and “bombę” is for “whom, what for?”)
+Usually only a small number of settings produced the patterns, and each of those settings was tried
+to determine the one that was correct.  Because there were three rotors and three positions for rotors
+in Enigma, there were six possible rotor orders; therefore, six bomby were produced.  In December
+, the Germans introduced two new rotors.  Then there were sixty possible ways to select three
+rotors from the set and place them in Enigma; sixty bomby would have been needed, and the Cipher
+Bureau could not afford to build them.  After the change, the Cipher Bureau could break few Enigma
+messages.
-<p>He wrote that he was very interested in the 'magnificent Shannon Scheme', and asked for a copy of the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1927, as well as the official minutes of the debates in the Irish Parliament. He was following with the 'greatest interest' the further development of the Shannon Scheme, and was keen 'to receive all further reports' relevant to the Scheme. </p>
-<p>Later Roosevelt - from 1933 to 1945 President of the USA - consulted this information for the Tennessee Valley Project, which he had initiated in 1933 in the South East of the USA as part of his 'New Deal'. Under the auspices of the TVA, a huge project for, inter alia, the harnessing of hydropower was completed there. </p>
+In July 1939, as war with Germany loomed over Poland, the Polish codebreakers met just outside Warsaw
+with British and French codebreakers.  At this meeting the Poles described their achievements against Enigma.
+As a result of the meeting, the British and the French each received one of the Enigma doubles and information
+on the methods used by the Poles to solve daily keys.
+On September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland, and British codebreakers at Bletchley Park continued
+the attack on Enigma.  British mathematicians such as Alan Turing and Gordon Welchman and engineers
+such as Harold “Doc” Keen and Thomas “Tommy” Flowers developed cryptanalytic machines to attack
+Enigma and other German ciphers. One of the machines to attack Enigma was the Turing-Welchman
+bombe.  (IEEE Milestone, Bletchley Park, 1939 – 1945)  Both the British bombe and the Polish bomba
+searched through all possible Enigma rotor settings for settings that produced patterns that had been
+noticed by the codebreakers.  The British bombe searched for patterns in Enigma messages, and the
+Polish bomba searched for patterns in Enigma indicators.
-== International Prestige for Ireland and its role in Nation Building  ==
-<p>The Shannon Scheme for the Electrification of the Irish Free State was an important commercial and political success for the Irish government. The Scheme greatly enhanced Ireland´s up-to-then little developed international reputation and it promoted stability within Ireland following the War of Independence (1919-21) and the Civil War (1922-23). </p>
+After the United States entered the war, US Navy mathematicians at Naval Communications in
+Washington, DC, designed cryptanalytic machines to attack Japanese ciphers and machines to
+assist the British with the attack on naval Enigma.  These codebreaking machines were engineered
+by Joseph Desch and other engineers at the Naval Computing Machine Laboratory located at National
+Cash Register Company in Dayton, OH.  One of the machines to attack naval Enigma was the US Navy
+cryptologic bombe.  (IEEE Milestone, Naval Computing Machine Laboratory, 1942 – 1945)  The US
+Navy bombe – like the British bombe – searched for patterns in Enigma messages.
+At the beginning of the German attack on Poland, Rejewski, Zygalski, and Różycki fled Warsaw,
+and they arrived in Paris in late September.  By the end of October they were again working on
+German ciphers – now at Command Post (P.C.) Bruno at Gretz-Armainvillers near Paris.  The Poles
+and the British exchanged Enigma keys.  In January 1940, Alan Turing visited the Polish codebreakers
+in France.  Turing brought the Poles the British version of the Zygalski sheets, and the Poles provided
+Turing with corrected information on the wiring of Enigma rotors IV and V.
+Palluth and Fokczyński had also fled to France. Palluth maintained the team’s radio contact with London
+and later with Algiers and was involved with monitoring German radio signals.  Fokczynski repaired
+radio and cipher equipment.
-<p>Politicians in the Irish Parliament rightly referred to the 'nation-building' aspect of the Shannon Scheme and there is no doubt that the measures being taken to implement this great technical project captured fully the spirit of the emerging nation. Thus the story of the Shannon Scheme is much more than that of the successful execution of a mammoth electrification project, a point taken by among others W.M. Harland in the Financial Times (December 1928).<ref name="refnum3">As referenced in Electricity Supply in Ireland, The History of the ESB, Maurice Manning and Moore Mc Dowell, Gill and McMillan, 1984.</ref> </p>
+Following the German attack on France in May 1940, Rejewski, Zygalski, and Różycki evacuated to
+North Africa.  By October they had returned to Vichy France and continued attacking German ciphers.
+They were located near Uzès at P.C. Cadix.  Until Germany took control of South France, the Polish
+codebreakers traveled to and from North Africa.  On January 9, 1942, on a trip back to France after
+a three-month assignment in the cipher section in Algiers, Różycki died when the ship on which he
+was traveling sank.  In November 1942, after Operation Torch, the Allied attack on North Africa,
+Germany occupied free France.  Rejewski and Zygalski undertook a harrowing crossing into Spain,
+which included their being detained in Spanish prisons.  After their release, they traveled to Portugal
+and then to Gibraltar from where they flew to Britain.
+Palluth and Fokczyński were both captured during the crossing into Spain.  They both died in the
+Sachsenhausen camp – Palluth during an Allied bombing raid and Fokczyński due to illness.
+Rejewski and Zygalski arrived in Great Britain in August 1943 and served with the Communications
+Battalion of the Polish Armed Forces Commander-in-Chief’s General Staff.  Both served in the German
+section.  Their work until the end of the war was breaking manual SS and SD ciphers.
-<p>"For half a century the country under the British regime toyed with the suggestion of harnessing the Shannon. The British are a hardheaded and practical folk, but they jibbed at such a venture. Then the Free State came into being, and ardent untried administrators, remembering that they had always being accused of being dreamers, seized on this chance of showing what they can do. So they flung themselves on the Shannon Scheme, though never forgetting the practical benefits they hoped to realize from it for agricultural and industrial development of the land. The President and his colleagues are the shrewdest of psychologists. They have had thrown on their shoulders the not easy task of breaking what in reality is an enormous inferiority complex and the Shannon Scheme is one and probably the most vital of their methods of doing it. The faith of the Free State in the nation-wide hydro electric venture is as steadfast as a religious belief". </p>
+After the war, Zygalski remained in England and worked at the Polish University.  He died in 1978 in Liss,
+near Portsmouth.  When the war ended, Rejewski returned to his home in Bydgoszcz where, despite
+harassment by the Polish security services, he worked for various companies until his retirement
+because of poor health in 1966.  He moved to Warsaw in 1969 and died there of a heart attack in 1980.
-== Scale of Government Expenditure  ==
+IEEE Poland Section is indebted to Dr. Chris Christensen and Mr. Ralph Erskine for their editorial support and useful comments added to this manuscript, especially concerning the existing related IEEE Milestones (1939-45 Bletchley Park, and 1942-45 Naval Computing Machine Laboratory)|features=On September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland, and British codebreakers at Bletchley Park continued the attack on Enigma.  British mathematicians such as Alan Turing and Gordon Welchman and engineers such as Harold “Doc” Keen and Thomas “Tommy” Flowers developed cryptanalytic machines to attack Enigma and other German ciphers. One of the machines to attack Enigma was the Turing-Welchman bombe.  (IEEE Milestone, Bletchley Park, 1939 – 1945)  Both the British bombe and the Polish bomba searched through all possible Enigma rotor settings for settings that produced patterns that had been noticed by the codebreakers.  The British bombe searched for patterns in Enigma messages, and the Polish bomba searched for patterns in Enigma indicators.
-<p>The construction of the Shannon Scheme was a mammoth undertaking for a country the size of Ireland, especially when the State was barely three years old. The project cost of £5.5 million was the equivalent of about 20% of the government's revenue budget in 1925. The detractors, whom at outset dubbed the Scheme "Mc Gilligan's White Elephant", were subsequently proved wrong when electricity consumption began to rise at a phenomenal rate as soon as Shannon power became available. </p>
+After the United States entered the war, US Navy mathematicians at Naval Communications in Washington, DC, designed cryptanalytic machines to attack Japanese ciphers and machines to assist the British with the attack on naval Enigma.  These codebreaking machines were engineered by Joseph Desch and other engineers at the Naval Computing Machine Laboratory located at National Cash Register Company in Dayton, OH.  One of the machines to attack naval Enigma was the US Navy cryptologic bombe.  (IEEE Milestone, Naval Computing Machine Laboratory, 1942 – 1945)  The US Navy bombe – like the British bombe – searched for patterns in Enigma messages.|references=The achievements outlined above are covered in more detail in the following publications:
+[1]	Frank Carter, “The First Breaking of Enigma: Some of the Pioneering Techniques Developed by the Polish Cipher Bureau,” Report No 2, Bletchley Park Trust, 2008.
-<p>The complete success of the national electrification of the Irish Free State in its technical, commercial and financial aspects has never been disputed. The electrification project, described by (Prime Minister) Mr. de Valera as an 'experiment of great sociological value' attracted wide praise. In the Irish Parliament it was noted that the Scheme was as 'outstanding and flagrant success and to the credit of this country', 'a dream which we are glad to see realised' , ´ an undertaking of fantastic evolution´ and a 'tremendous success' . In the Irish Senate, W. Barrington declared that the Irish Free State had in a record time acquired an electric supply system of which any nation could be proud.<ref name="refnum4">Studien zur Entwicklung hydroelectrischer Enegienutzung: Die Electrifizierung Irlands, Lothar Schoen: Verein Deutcher Ingenieure 1979</ref> </p>
+[2]	Jennifer Wilcox, “Solving the Enigma: History of the Cryptanalytic Bombe,” Center for Cryptologic History, National Security Agency, 2006. http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/solving_enigma.pdf
+[3]	Chris Christensen,”Polish Mathematicians Finding Patterns in Enigma Messages,” Mathematics Magazine, 80(4), October 2007, pp. 247-273.
-<p>At the end of 1940, by which time the effects of the war had become noticeable, the then Minister for Industry and Commerce, S. MacEntee expressed the following view: </p>
+[4]	F. H. Hinsley, et al., British Intelligence in the Second World War: Its Influence on Strategy and Operations (book). 3(2), Appendix 30.
+[5]	Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing: The Enigma, Simon & Schuster, 1983 (book).  This is also available in a Polish translation: Andrew Hodges, Enigma. Życie i śmierć Alana Turinga, Prószyński i S-ka, Warsaw, 2002.
-<p>'I think the development of our water power does put us in a position of independence and does give us a national task which has important reactions upon our psychology. I think it is true to say that the fact that we are able, so soon after the unfortunate civil war, to undertake the development of the Shannon scheme had a good effect upon us all. We can all look back and take equal pride in the fact that there were some people who had the courage and the vision to tackle the project at that time.'<ref name="refnum4" /> </p>
+[6]	Brian Johnson, The Secret War, Methuen Inc, 1978 (book).  This is also available in a Polish translation: Brian Johnson, Sekrety Drugiej Wojny Światowej. Wojna Mózgów, Zysk i S-ka, Warsaw, 1997.
+[7]	Władysław Kozaczuk, W kręgu Enigmy, Książka i Wiedza, Warsaw 1986 (book).
-== Contribution to Innovation and Engineering History  ==
+[8]	David Kahn, The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing, Scribner; Revised Edition, 1996 (book).  This is also available in a Polish translation: Łamacze kodów: Historia kryptologii, WNT Warszawa, 2004.
+[9]	Marian Rejewski, Memories of My Work at the Cipher Bureau of the General Staff Second Department 1930-45, Adam Mickiewicz University Press, Poznań, Poland, 2011 (book.)  Half of this book is written in Polish, and the other half is a translation into English.
-<p>The Shannon Scheme introduced, as a technical breakthrough in the area of hydropower machines, the first Kaplan turbine in the world for a head exceeding 30 m. On commissioning, the machine met all expectations. It demonstrated the leading position of German hydro turbine production at the time, which was based both on theoretical knowledge and on the results of detailed scientific and technical experiments in a purpose equipped factory laboratory. As Schoen noted: </p>
+Websites:
+US National Security Agency’s Center for Cryptologic History website:
-<p>The J. M. Voith manufactured Kaplan turbine was installed as part of Shannon Further Development with a new type of rotor development and it was the first Kaplan turbine in the world to be built for a maximum head exceeding 30 m, and thus it represented a revolutionary breakthrough in hydro-machine construction. The acceptance tests at Ardnacrusha in March 1934 gave very good results; the guarantee values were significantly exceeded.The turbine operation was excellent.Its design had been subject to extensive model investigations in the test facilitates of the manufacturers (in Hermaringen), and the successful results emphasised the importance of such modern test laboratories. </p>
+http://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/center_crypt_history/publications/wwii.shtml
+There are many Enigma websites, including Wikipedia’s comprehensive coverage at
-<p>He later added: </p>
+http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptanalysis_of_the_Enigma|support=}}
-<p>The manufacturers selected a seven-blade design for the rotor of the Shannon Kaplan turbine; this number of blades was considered necessary for safety reasons. To counter the risk of cavitation on the rotor in Ardnacrusha, the tangential blade lengths were made particularly large, in addition to having the high number of blades; the blades partially overlapped, so that the rotor was no longer 'transparent'. In this way, the hydraulic loading (and thus the susceptibility to cavitation) was reduced. Additionally, the especially resistive material 13% chrome steel was used for the blades. The excellence of the construction of the fourth Shannon turbine was demonstrated by its extraordinarily low vibration manifestations, and by the almost complete absence of cavitation damage to be observed in later inspections, unlike with the three Francis turbines.<ref name="refnum4" /> </p>
-== Significant Commercial and Technical Risk  ==
-<p>The contracts for the execution of the Shannon Scheme were awarded to a German company, Siemens, which had brought it from initial concept to maturity. It has to remain an open question whether English or American firms would actually have been prepared to undertake an engineering project of these dimensions. It can be assumed that the larger of them would in all respects have well been capable of completing the engineering execution of the works. However in forming their decision, such companies would certainly have shown much greater hesitation regarding the large and visible technical and commercial risk than did Siemens, who took on the contracts almost without reservation. </p>
-<p>In the final analysis it must be concluded that the contracts were placed with Siemens not just because there were no other bids in place, but because of the high quality of what was offered and the manner in which it met Irish interests. In addition, the expectations of success were astonishingly high because the participating German firms were already at that time known in the Irish Free State for their world-wide experience; this is documented in records of parliamentary debate, where comments confirming such view were frequently expressed.<ref name="refnum4" /> </p>
-<p>Furthermore, the commission of recognised international experts approved, with only minor modifications, the project as submitted by Siemens. </p>
-== Use of the Most Modern International Technology  ==
-<p>It is significant also that the contracts were awarded to a company from that European country which had held prime position scientifically and technically in the field of electro-technology from the beginnings of this branch of industry. </p>
-<p>The government of the Irish Free State thus had first-class technology available to it and was aware of this. Also, in the civil engineering sector, the German side possessed extensive experience in the application of the latest technology to large projects, even if constructions of this magnitude, with its associated unfavorable environmental conditions had never been handled up to then. The companies involved in the manufacture and installation of the hydro turbines likewise belonged to the most experienced and successful in this area. </p>
-== Role in Technology Transfer and Contribution to the Engineering Profession in Ireland  ==
-<p>The lively transfer of know-how initiated with the Shannon Scheme pointed out the path to be followed in the following decades by Irish governments. The Scheme thus opened the Irish economy to the flow of technology from outside and the dissemination process associated with it. Importation of valuable scientific and technical knowledge and methodologies were thus absorbed in the country and technological gaps from the past diminished. </p>
-<p>Indeed apart from Germany, the Irish Free State government, in the absence of expertise at home, called on know-how also from various other countries. Experts were engaged from Switzerland, Norway and Sweden for the evaluation and modification of the detailed drafts submitted by the executing firms. Additionally the Engineer appointed by the government for the supervision of the electrical and mechanical part of the project came from Canada and information and practical assistance for the organization of production, distribution and marketing of electrical energy were procured from the USA, Germany, Holland and Sweden. </p>
-== Unique Social, Artistic and Cultural Significance  ==
-<p>The significance for Ireland of the Shannon Scheme cannot be overstated. Most serious historians acknowledge that these developments provided the essential framework or platform for the social, economic and industrial development of the country. The Scheme also provided the rationale for the establishment of ESB, the first and most successful of Ireland's semi-state bodies. </p>
-<p>The arts also benefited as ESB were fortunate that the artist Sean Keating went on site to record on canvas the construction of the Shannon Scheme. Keating´s paintings and drawings of activity on the site provide a colourful and evocative record of the project. This foresight has ensured that Ireland has a fitting legacy of drawings and paintings that capture the most significant development of the early years in the history of the Irish Free State. </p>
-<p>A special documentary film on the progress of the scheme was commissioned to capture what was described as ´the Eighth Wonder of the World´. The project even provided material for a German romantic novel in the form of Am Shannon - Roman um ein Kraftwerk´ (On the Shannon - Novel at a Power Station) by Reinhold Zickel. </p>
-== References  ==
-<references />
 == Map ==
-{{#display_map:52.663857, -8.626772~ ~ ~ ~ ~Ardnacrusha Power Station, Ardnacrusha, County Limerick, Ireland|height=250|zoom=10|static=yes|center=52.663857, -8.626772}}
+{{#display_map:52.2213787, 21.0146535~ ~ ~ ~ ~First Breaking of Enigma Code by the Team of the Polish Cipher Bureau, 1932-1939, Warsaw, Poland|height=250|zoom=10|static=yes|center=52.2213787, 21.0146535}}
-[[Category:Energy|Electrification]] [[Category:Power engineering|Electrification]] [[Category:Electrification|Electrification]]
+[[Category:Cryptography|{{PAGENAME}}]]
+[[Category:Message_systems|{{PAGENAME}}]]